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简介:本文介绍如何测试多级 cache 的访存延迟,以及背后蕴含的计算机原理。

CPU 的 cache 往往是分多级的金字塔模型,L1 最靠近 CPU,访问延迟最小,但 cache 的容量也最小。本文介绍如何测试多级 cache 的访存延迟,以及背后蕴含的计算机原理。

image.png

图源:https://cs.brown.edu/courses/...

Cache Latency

Wikichip[1] 提供了不同 CPU 型号的 cache 延迟,单位一般为 cycle,通过简单的运算,转换为 ns。以 skylake 为例,CPU 各级 cache 延迟的基准值为:

image.png
CPU Frequency:2654MHz (0.3768 nanosec/clock)

设计实验

1. naive thinking

image.png

申请一个 buffer,buffer size 为 cache 对应的大小,第一次遍历进行预热,将数据全部加载到 cache 中。第二次遍历统计耗时,计算每次 read 的延迟平均值。

代码实现 mem-lat.c 如下:

#include <sys/types.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <sys/mman.h>
#include <sys/time.h>
#include <unistd.h>

#define ONE p = (char **)*p;
#define FIVE    ONE ONE ONE ONE ONE
#define TEN FIVE FIVE
#define FIFTY   TEN TEN TEN TEN TEN
#define HUNDRED FIFTY FIFTY

static void usage()
{
    printf("Usage: ./mem-lat -b xxx -n xxx -s xxx\n");
    printf("   -b buffer size in KB\n");
    printf("   -n number of read\n\n");
    printf("   -s stride skipped before the next access\n\n");
    printf("Please don't use non-decimal based number\n");
}


int main(int argc, char* argv[])
{
  unsigned long i, j, size, tmp;
    unsigned long memsize = 0x800000; /* 1/4 LLC size of skylake, 1/5 of broadwell */
    unsigned long count = 1048576; /* memsize / 64 * 8 */
    unsigned int stride = 64; /* skipped amount of memory before the next access */
    unsigned long sec, usec;
    struct timeval tv1, tv2;
    struct timezone tz;
    unsigned int *indices;

    while (argc-- > 0) {
        if ((*argv)[0] == '-') {  /* look at first char of next */
            switch ((*argv)[1]) {   /* look at second */
                case 'b':
                    argv++;
                    argc--;
                    memsize = atoi(*argv) * 1024;
                    break;

                case 'n':
                    argv++;
                    argc--;
                    count = atoi(*argv);
                    break;

                case 's':
                    argv++;
                    argc--;
                    stride = atoi(*argv);
                    break;

                default:
                    usage();
                    exit(1);
                    break;
            }
        }
        argv++;
    }


  char* mem = mmap(NULL, memsize, PROT_READ | PROT_WRITE, MAP_PRIVATE | MAP_ANON, -1, 0);
    // trick3: init pointer chasing, per stride=8 byte
    size = memsize / stride;
    indices = malloc(size * sizeof(int));

    for (i = 0; i < size; i++)
        indices[i] = i;
    
    // trick 2: fill mem with pointer references
    for (i = 0; i < size - 1; i++)
        *(char **)&mem[indices[i]*stride]= (char*)&mem[indices[i+1]*stride];
    *(char **)&mem[indices[size-1]*stride]= (char*)&mem[indices[0]*stride];

    char **p = (char **) mem;
    tmp = count / 100;

    gettimeofday (&tv1, &tz);
    for (i = 0; i < tmp; ++i) {
        HUNDRED;  //trick 1
    }
    gettimeofday (&tv2, &tz);
    if (tv2.tv_usec < tv1.tv_usec) {
        usec = 1000000 + tv2.tv_usec - tv1.tv_usec;
        sec = tv2.tv_sec - tv1.tv_sec - 1;
    } else {
        usec = tv2.tv_usec - tv1.tv_usec;
        sec = tv2.tv_sec - tv1.tv_sec;
    }

    printf("Buffer size: %ld KB, stride %d, time %d.%06d s, latency %.2f ns\n", 
            memsize/1024, stride, sec, usec, (sec * 1000000  + usec) * 1000.0 / (tmp *100));
    munmap(mem, memsize);
    free(indices);
}

这里用到了 3 个小技巧:

  • HUNDRED 宏:通过宏展开,尽可能避免其他指令对访存的干扰。
  • 二级指针:通过二级指针将buffer串起来,避免访存时计算偏移。
  • char 和 char* 为 8 字节,因此,stride 为 8。

测试方法:

#set -x

work=./mem-lat
buffer_size=1
stride=8

for i in `seq 1 15`; do
    taskset -ac 0 $work -b $buffer_size -s $stride
    buffer_size=$(($buffer_size*2))
done

测试结果如下:

//L1
Buffer size: 1 KB, stride 8, time 0.003921 s, latency 3.74 ns
Buffer size: 2 KB, stride 8, time 0.003928 s, latency 3.75 ns
Buffer size: 4 KB, stride 8, time 0.003935 s, latency 3.75 ns
Buffer size: 8 KB, stride 8, time 0.003926 s, latency 3.74 ns
Buffer size: 16 KB, stride 8, time 0.003942 s, latency 3.76 ns
Buffer size: 32 KB, stride 8, time 0.003963 s, latency 3.78 ns
//L2
Buffer size: 64 KB, stride 8, time 0.004043 s, latency 3.86 ns
Buffer size: 128 KB, stride 8, time 0.004054 s, latency 3.87 ns
Buffer size: 256 KB, stride 8, time 0.004051 s, latency 3.86 ns
Buffer size: 512 KB, stride 8, time 0.004049 s, latency 3.86 ns
Buffer size: 1024 KB, stride 8, time 0.004110 s, latency 3.92 ns
//L3
Buffer size: 2048 KB, stride 8, time 0.004126 s, latency 3.94 ns
Buffer size: 4096 KB, stride 8, time 0.004161 s, latency 3.97 ns
Buffer size: 8192 KB, stride 8, time 0.004313 s, latency 4.11 ns
Buffer size: 16384 KB, stride 8, time 0.004272 s, latency 4.07 ns

相比基准值,L1 延迟偏大,L2 和 L3 延迟偏小,不符合预期。

2. thinking with hardware: cache line

现代处理器,内存以 cache line 为粒度,组织在 cache 中。访存的读写粒度都是一个 cache line,最常见的缓存线大小是 64 字节。

image.png

如果我们简单的以 8 字节为粒度,顺序读取 128KB 的 buffer,假设数据命中的是 L2,那么数据就会被缓存到 L1,一个 cache line 其他的访存操作都只会命中 L1,从而导致我们测量的 L2 延迟明显偏小。

本文测试的 CPU,cacheline 大小 64 字节,只需将 stride 设为 64。

image.png

测试结果如下:

//L1
Buffer size: 1 KB, stride 64, time 0.003933 s, latency 3.75 ns
Buffer size: 2 KB, stride 64, time 0.003930 s, latency 3.75 ns
Buffer size: 4 KB, stride 64, time 0.003925 s, latency 3.74 ns
Buffer size: 8 KB, stride 64, time 0.003931 s, latency 3.75 ns
Buffer size: 16 KB, stride 64, time 0.003935 s, latency 3.75 ns
Buffer size: 32 KB, stride 64, time 0.004115 s, latency 3.92 ns
//L2
Buffer size: 64 KB, stride 64, time 0.007423 s, latency 7.08 ns
Buffer size: 128 KB, stride 64, time 0.007414 s, latency 7.07 ns
Buffer size: 256 KB, stride 64, time 0.007437 s, latency 7.09 ns
Buffer size: 512 KB, stride 64, time 0.007429 s, latency 7.09 ns
Buffer size: 1024 KB, stride 64, time 0.007650 s, latency 7.30 ns
Buffer size: 2048 KB, stride 64, time 0.007670 s, latency 7.32 ns
//L3
Buffer size: 4096 KB, stride 64, time 0.007695 s, latency 7.34 ns
Buffer size: 8192 KB, stride 64, time 0.007786 s, latency 7.43 ns
Buffer size: 16384 KB, stride 64, time 0.008172 s, latency 7.79 ns

虽然相比方案 1,L2 和 L3 的延迟有所增大,但还是不符合预期。

3. thinking with hardware: prefetch

现代处理器,通常支持预取(prefetch)。数据预取通过将代码中后续可能使用到的数据提前加载到 cache 中,减少 CPU 等待数据从内存中加载的时间,提升 cache 命中率,进而提升软件的运行效率。

Intel 处理器支持 4 种硬件预取 [2],可以通过 MSR 控制关闭和打开:

image.png

这里我们简单的将 stride 设为 128 和 256,避免硬件预取。测试的 L3 访存延迟明显增大:

// stride 128
Buffer size: 1 KB, stride 256, time 0.003927 s, latency 3.75 ns
Buffer size: 2 KB, stride 256, time 0.003924 s, latency 3.74 ns
Buffer size: 4 KB, stride 256, time 0.003928 s, latency 3.75 ns
Buffer size: 8 KB, stride 256, time 0.003923 s, latency 3.74 ns
Buffer size: 16 KB, stride 256, time 0.003930 s, latency 3.75 ns
Buffer size: 32 KB, stride 256, time 0.003929 s, latency 3.75 ns
Buffer size: 64 KB, stride 256, time 0.007534 s, latency 7.19 ns
Buffer size: 128 KB, stride 256, time 0.007462 s, latency 7.12 ns
Buffer size: 256 KB, stride 256, time 0.007479 s, latency 7.13 ns
Buffer size: 512 KB, stride 256, time 0.007698 s, latency 7.34 ns
Buffer size: 512 KB, stride 128, time 0.007597 s, latency 7.25 ns
Buffer size: 1024 KB, stride 128, time 0.009169 s, latency 8.74 ns
Buffer size: 2048 KB, stride 128, time 0.010008 s, latency 9.55 ns
Buffer size: 4096 KB, stride 128, time 0.010008 s, latency 9.55 ns
Buffer size: 8192 KB, stride 128, time 0.010366 s, latency 9.89 ns
Buffer size: 16384 KB, stride 128, time 0.012031 s, latency 11.47 ns

// stride 256
Buffer size: 512 KB, stride 256, time 0.007698 s, latency 7.34 ns
Buffer size: 1024 KB, stride 256, time 0.012654 s, latency 12.07 ns
Buffer size: 2048 KB, stride 256, time 0.025210 s, latency 24.04 ns
Buffer size: 4096 KB, stride 256, time 0.025466 s, latency 24.29 ns
Buffer size: 8192 KB, stride 256, time 0.025840 s, latency 24.64 ns
Buffer size: 16384 KB, stride 256, time 0.027442 s, latency 26.17 ns

L3 的访存延迟基本上是符合预期的,但是 L1 和 L2 明显偏大。

如果测试随机访存延迟,更加通用的做法是,在将buffer指针串起来时,随机化一下。

 // shuffle indices
   for (i = 0; i < size; i++) {
       j = i +  rand() % (size - i);
       if (i != j) {
           tmp = indices[i];
           indices[i] = indices[j];
           indices[j] = tmp;
       }
   }

可以看到,测试结果与 stride 为 256 基本上是一样的。

Buffer size: 1 KB, stride 64, time 0.003942 s, latency 3.76 ns
Buffer size: 2 KB, stride 64, time 0.003925 s, latency 3.74 ns
Buffer size: 4 KB, stride 64, time 0.003928 s, latency 3.75 ns
Buffer size: 8 KB, stride 64, time 0.003931 s, latency 3.75 ns
Buffer size: 16 KB, stride 64, time 0.003932 s, latency 3.75 ns
Buffer size: 32 KB, stride 64, time 0.004276 s, latency 4.08 ns
Buffer size: 64 KB, stride 64, time 0.007465 s, latency 7.12 ns
Buffer size: 128 KB, stride 64, time 0.007470 s, latency 7.12 ns
Buffer size: 256 KB, stride 64, time 0.007521 s, latency 7.17 ns
Buffer size: 512 KB, stride 64, time 0.009340 s, latency 8.91 ns
Buffer size: 1024 KB, stride 64, time 0.015230 s, latency 14.53 ns
Buffer size: 2048 KB, stride 64, time 0.027567 s, latency 26.29 ns
Buffer size: 4096 KB, stride 64, time 0.027853 s, latency 26.56 ns
Buffer size: 8192 KB, stride 64, time 0.029945 s, latency 28.56 ns
Buffer size: 16384 KB, stride 64, time 0.034878 s, latency 33.26 ns

4. thinking with compiler: register keyword

解决掉 L3 偏小的问题后,我们继续看 L1 和 L2 偏大的原因。为了找出偏大的原因,我们先反汇编可执行程序,看看执行的汇编指令是否是我们想要的:

objdump -D -S mem-lat > mem-lat.s

为卡片添加间距

删除卡片

  • -D: Display assembler contents of all sections.
  • -S:Intermix source code with disassembly. (gcc编译时需使用-g,生成调式信息)

生成的汇编文件 mem-lat.s:

char **p = (char **)mem;
 400b3a:   48 8b 45 c8             mov    -0x38(%rbp),%rax
 400b3e:   48 89 45 d0             mov    %rax,-0x30(%rbp) // push stack

//...   
   HUNDRED;
 400b85:   48 8b 45 d0             mov    -0x30(%rbp),%rax
 400b89:   48 8b 00                mov    (%rax),%rax
 400b8c:   48 89 45 d0             mov    %rax,-0x30(%rbp)
 400b90:   48 8b 45 d0             mov    -0x30(%rbp),%rax
 400b94:   48 8b 00                mov    (%rax),%rax

首先,变量 mem 赋值给变量 p,变量 p 压入栈-0x30(%rbp)。

   char **p = (char **)mem;
  400b3a:   48 8b 45 c8             mov    -0x38(%rbp),%rax
  400b3e:   48 89 45 d0             mov    %rax,-0x30(%rbp)

访存的逻辑:

        HUNDRED;  // p = (char **)*p
  400b85:   48 8b 45 d0             mov    -0x30(%rbp),%rax
  400b89:   48 8b 00                mov    (%rax),%rax
  400b8c:   48 89 45 d0             mov    %rax,-0x30(%rbp)
  • 先从栈中读取指针变量 p 的值到rax寄存器(变量 p 的类型为char *,是一个二级指针,也就是说,指针 p 指向一个char 的变量,即 p 的值也是一个地址)。下图中变量 p 的值为 0x2000。
  • 将rax寄存器指向变量的值读入rax寄存器,对应单目运算*p。下图中地址 0x2000的值为 0x3000,rax 更新为 0x3000。
  • 将rax寄存器赋值给变量p。下图中变量p的值更新为0x3000。

image.png

根据反汇编的结果可以看到,期望的 1 条 move 指令被编译成了 3 条,cache 的延迟也就增加了 3 倍。

C 语言的 register 关键字,可以让编译器将变量保存到寄存器中,从而避免每次从栈中读取的开销。

It's a hint to the compiler that the variable will be heavily used and that you recommend it be kept in a processor register if possible.

我们在声明 p 时,加上 register 关键字。

register char **p = (char **)mem;

测试结果如下:

// L1
Buffer size: 1 KB, stride 64, time 0.000030 s, latency 0.03 ns
Buffer size: 2 KB, stride 64, time 0.000029 s, latency 0.03 ns
Buffer size: 4 KB, stride 64, time 0.000030 s, latency 0.03 ns
Buffer size: 8 KB, stride 64, time 0.000030 s, latency 0.03 ns
Buffer size: 16 KB, stride 64, time 0.000030 s, latency 0.03 ns
Buffer size: 32 KB, stride 64, time 0.000030 s, latency 0.03 ns
// L2
Buffer size: 64 KB, stride 64, time 0.000030 s, latency 0.03 ns
Buffer size: 128 KB, stride 64, time 0.000030 s, latency 0.03 ns
Buffer size: 256 KB, stride 64, time 0.000029 s, latency 0.03 ns
Buffer size: 512 KB, stride 64, time 0.000030 s, latency 0.03 ns
Buffer size: 1024 KB, stride 64, time 0.000030 s, latency 0.03 ns
// L3
Buffer size: 2048 KB, stride 64, time 0.000030 s, latency 0.03 ns
Buffer size: 4096 KB, stride 64, time 0.000029 s, latency 0.03 ns
Buffer size: 8192 KB, stride 64, time 0.000030 s, latency 0.03 ns
Buffer size: 16384 KB, stride 64, time 0.000030 s, latency 0.03 ns

访存延迟全部变为不足 1 ns,明显不符合预期。

5. thinking with compiler: Touch it!

重新反汇编,看看哪里出了问题,编译代码如下:

     for (i = 0; i < tmp; ++i) {
   40155e:   48 c7 45 f8 00 00 00    movq   $0x0,-0x8(%rbp)
   401565:   00
   401566:   eb 05                   jmp    40156d <main+0x37e>
   401568:   48 83 45 f8 01          addq   $0x1,-0x8(%rbp)
   40156d:   48 8b 45 f8             mov    -0x8(%rbp),%rax
   401571:   48 3b 45 b0             cmp    -0x50(%rbp),%rax
   401575:   72 f1                   jb     401568 <main+0x379>
         HUNDRED;
     }
     gettimeofday (&tv2, &tz);
   401577:   48 8d 95 78 ff ff ff    lea    -0x88(%rbp),%rdx
   40157e:   48 8d 45 80             lea    -0x80(%rbp),%rax
   401582:   48 89 d6                mov    %rdx,%rsi
   401585:   48 89 c7                mov    %rax,%rdi
   401588:   e8 e3 fa ff ff          callq  401070 <gettimeofday@plt>

HUNDRED 宏没有产生任何汇编代码。涉及到变量 p 的语句,并没有实际作用,只是数据读取,大概率被编译器优化掉了。

     register char **p = (char **) mem;
     tmp = count / 100;

     gettimeofday (&tv1, &tz);
     for (i = 0; i < tmp; ++i) {
         HUNDRED;
     }
     gettimeofday (&tv2, &tz);

     /* touch pointer p to prevent compiler optimization */
     char **touch = p;

反汇编验证一下:

         HUNDRED;
   401570:   48 8b 1b                mov    (%rbx),%rbx
   401573:   48 8b 1b                mov    (%rbx),%rbx
   401576:   48 8b 1b                mov    (%rbx),%rbx
   401579:   48 8b 1b                mov    (%rbx),%rbx
   40157c:   48 8b 1b                mov    (%rbx),%rbx

HUNDRED 宏产生的汇编代码只有操作寄存器 rbx 的 mov 指令,高级。

延迟的测试结果如下:

// L1
Buffer size: 1 KB, stride 64, time 0.001687 s, latency 1.61 ns
Buffer size: 2 KB, stride 64, time 0.001684 s, latency 1.61 ns
Buffer size: 4 KB, stride 64, time 0.001682 s, latency 1.60 ns
Buffer size: 8 KB, stride 64, time 0.001693 s, latency 1.61 ns
Buffer size: 16 KB, stride 64, time 0.001683 s, latency 1.61 ns
Buffer size: 32 KB, stride 64, time 0.001783 s, latency 1.70 ns
// L2
Buffer size: 64 KB, stride 64, time 0.005896 s, latency 5.62 ns
Buffer size: 128 KB, stride 64, time 0.005915 s, latency 5.64 ns
Buffer size: 256 KB, stride 64, time 0.005955 s, latency 5.68 ns
Buffer size: 512 KB, stride 64, time 0.007856 s, latency 7.49 ns
Buffer size: 1024 KB, stride 64, time 0.014929 s, latency 14.24 ns
// L3
Buffer size: 2048 KB, stride 64, time 0.026970 s, latency 25.72 ns
Buffer size: 4096 KB, stride 64, time 0.026968 s, latency 25.72 ns
Buffer size: 8192 KB, stride 64, time 0.028823 s, latency 27.49 ns
Buffer size: 16384 KB, stride 64, time 0.033325 s, latency 31.78 ns

L1 延迟 1.61 ns,L2 延迟 5.62 ns,终于,符合预期!

写在最后

本文的思路和代码参考自 lmbench[3],和团队内其他同学的工具 mem-lat。最后给自己挖个坑,在随机化 buffer 指针时,没有考虑硬件 TLB miss 的影响,如果有读者有兴趣,待日后有空补充。

原文链接
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